# Rust in QEMU

Rust in QEMU is a project to enable using the Rust programming language to add new functionality to QEMU.

Right now, the focus is on making it possible to write devices that inherit from `SysBusDevice` in *safe* Rust. Later, it may become possible to write other kinds of devices (e.g. PCI devices that can do DMA), complete boards, or backends (e.g. block device formats).

## Building the Rust in QEMU code

The Rust in QEMU code is included in the emulators via Meson. Meson invokes rustc directly, building static libraries that are then linked together with the C code. This is completely automatic when you run `make` or `ninja`.

However, QEMU’s build system also tries to be easy to use for people who are accustomed to the more “normal” Cargo-based development workflow. In particular:

- the set of warnings and lints that are used to build QEMU always comes from the `rust/Cargo.toml` workspace file

- it is also possible to use `cargo` for common Rust-specific coding tasks, in particular to invoke `clippy`, `rustfmt` and `rustdoc`.

To this end, QEMU includes a `build.rs` build script that picks up generated sources from QEMU’s build directory and puts it in Cargo’s output directory (typically `rust/target/`). A vanilla invocation of Cargo will complain that it cannot find the generated sources, which can be fixed in different ways:

- by using special shorthand targets in the QEMU build directory:

      make clippy
      make rustfmt
      make rustdoc

- by invoking `cargo` through the Meson development environment feature:

      pyvenv/bin/meson devenv -w ../rust cargo clippy --tests
      pyvenv/bin/meson devenv -w ../rust cargo fmt

  If you are going to use `cargo` repeatedly, `pyvenv/bin/meson devenv` will enter a shell where commands like `cargo clippy` just work.

- by pointing the `MESON_BUILD_ROOT` to the top of your QEMU build tree. This third method is useful if you are using `rust-analyzer`; you can set the environment variable through the `rust-analyzer.cargo.extraEnv` setting.

As shown above, you can use the `--tests` option as usual to operate on test code. Note however that you cannot build or run tests via `cargo`, because they need support C code from QEMU that Cargo does not know about. Tests can be run via `meson test` or `make`:

    make check-rust

Building Rust code with `--enable-modules` is not supported yet.

### Supported tools

QEMU supports rustc version 1.63.0 and newer. Notably, the following features are missing:

- `core::ffi` (1.64.0). Use `std::os::raw` and `std::ffi` instead.

- `cast_mut()`/`cast_const()` (1.65.0). Use `as` instead.

- “let … else” (1.65.0). Use `if let` instead. This is currently patched in QEMU’s vendored copy of the bilge crate.

- Generic Associated Types (1.65.0)

- `CStr::from_bytes_with_nul()` as a `const` function (1.72.0).

- “Return position `impl Trait` in Traits” (1.75.0, blocker for including the pinned-init create).

- `MaybeUninit::zeroed()` as a `const` function (1.75.0). QEMU’s `Zeroable` trait can be implemented without `MaybeUninit::zeroed()`, so this would be just a cleanup.

- `c"" literals` (stable in 1.77.0). QEMU provides a `c_str!()` macro to define `CStr` constants easily

- `offset_of!` (stable in 1.77.0). QEMU uses `offset_of!()` heavily; it provides a replacement in the `qemu_api` crate, but it does not support lifetime parameters and therefore `&'a Something` fields in the struct may have to be replaced by `NonNull<Something>`. Nested `offset_of!` was only stabilized in Rust 1.82.0, but it is not used.

- inline const expression (stable in 1.79.0), currently worked around with associated constants in the `FnCall` trait.

- associated constants have to be explicitly marked `'static` (changed in 1.81.0)

- `&raw` (stable in 1.82.0). Use `addr_of!` and `addr_of_mut!` instead, though hopefully the need for raw pointers will go down over time.

- `new_uninit` (stable in 1.82.0). This is used internally by the `pinned_init` crate, which is planned for inclusion in QEMU, but it can be easily patched out.

- referencing statics in constants (stable in 1.83.0). For now use a const function; this is an important limitation for QEMU’s migration stream architecture (VMState). Right now, VMState lacks type safety because it is hard to place the `VMStateField` definitions in traits.

- associated const equality would be nice to have for some users of `callbacks::FnCall`, but is still experimental. `ASSERT_IS_SOME` replaces it.

It is expected that QEMU will advance its minimum supported version of rustc to 1.77.0 as soon as possible; as of January 2025, blockers for that right now are Debian bookworm and 32-bit MIPS processors. This unfortunately means that references to statics in constants will remain an issue.

QEMU also supports version 0.60.x of bindgen, which is missing option `--generate-cstr`. This option requires version 0.66.x and will be adopted as soon as supporting these older versions is not necessary anymore.

## Writing Rust code in QEMU

QEMU includes four crates:

- `qemu_api` for bindings to C code and useful functionality

- `qemu_api_macros` defines several procedural macros that are useful when writing C code

- `pl011` (under `rust/hw/char/pl011`) and `hpet` (under `rust/hw/timer/hpet`) are sample devices that demonstrate `qemu_api` and `qemu_api_macros`, and are used to further develop them. These two crates are functional[1] replacements for the `hw/char/pl011.c` and `hw/timer/hpet.c` files.

[1]

The `pl011` crate is synchronized with `hw/char/pl011.c` as of commit 02b1f7f61928. The `hpet` crate is synchronized as of commit f32352ff9e. Both are lacking tracing functionality; `hpet` is also lacking support for migration.

This section explains how to work with them.

### Status

Modules of `qemu_api` can be defined as:

- complete: ready for use in new devices; if applicable, the API supports the full functionality available in C

- stable: ready for production use, the API is safe and should not undergo major changes

- proof of concept: the API is subject to change but allows working with safe Rust

- initial: the API is in its initial stages; it requires large amount of unsafe code; it might have soundness or type-safety issues

The status of the modules is as follows:

module | status
--- | ---
`assertions` | stable
`bitops` | complete
`callbacks` | complete
`cell` | stable
`c_str` | complete
`errno` | complete
`irq` | complete
`memory` | stable
`module` | complete
`offset_of` | stable
`qdev` | stable
`qom` | stable
`sysbus` | stable
`timer` | stable
`vmstate` | proof of concept
`zeroable` | stable

Note

API stability is not a promise, if anything because the C APIs are not a stable interface either. Also, `unsafe` interfaces may be replaced by safe interfaces later.

### Naming convention

C function names usually are prefixed according to the data type that they apply to, for example `timer_mod` or `sysbus_connect_irq`. Furthermore, both function and structs sometimes have a `qemu_` or `QEMU` prefix. Generally speaking, these are all removed in the corresponding Rust functions: `QEMUTimer` becomes `timer::Timer`, `timer_mod` becomes `Timer::modify`, `sysbus_connect_irq` becomes `SysBusDeviceMethods::connect_irq`.

Sometimes however a name appears multiple times in the QOM class hierarchy, and the only difference is in the prefix. An example is `qdev_realize` and `sysbus_realize`. In such cases, whenever a name is not unique in the hierarchy, always add the prefix to the classes that are lower in the hierarchy; for the top class, decide on a case by case basis.

For example:

`device_cold_reset()` | `DeviceMethods::cold_reset()`
`pci_device_reset()` | `PciDeviceMethods::pci_device_reset()`
`pci_bridge_reset()` | `PciBridgeMethods::pci_bridge_reset()`

Here, the name is not exactly the same, but nevertheless `PciDeviceMethods` adds the prefix to avoid confusion, because the functionality of `device_cold_reset()` and `pci_device_reset()` is subtly different.

In this case, however, no prefix is needed:

`device_realize()` | `DeviceMethods::realize()`
`sysbus_realize()` | `SysbusDeviceMethods::sysbus_realize()`
`pci_realize()` | `PciDeviceMethods::pci_realize()`

Here, the lower classes do not add any functionality, and mostly provide extra compile-time checking; the basic realize functionality is the same for all devices. Therefore, `DeviceMethods` does not add the prefix.

Whenever a name is unique in the hierarchy, instead, you should always remove the class name prefix.

### Common pitfalls

Rust has very strict rules with respect to how you get an exclusive (`&mut`) reference; failure to respect those rules is a source of undefined behavior. In particular, even if a value is loaded from a raw mutable pointer (`*mut`), it cannot be casted to `&mut` unless the value was stored to the `*mut` from a mutable reference. Furthermore, it is undefined behavior if any shared reference was created between the store to the `*mut` and the load:

    let mut p: u32 = 42;
    let p_mut = &mut p;                              // 1
    let p_raw = p_mut as *mut u32;                   // 2

    // p_raw keeps the mutable reference "alive"

    let p_shared = &p;                               // 3
    println!("access from &u32: {}", *p_shared);

    // Bring back the mutable reference, its lifetime overlaps
    // with that of a shared reference.
    let p_mut = unsafe { &mut *p_raw };              // 4
    println!("access from &mut 32: {}", *p_mut);

    println!("access from &u32: {}", *p_shared);     // 5

These rules can be tested with MIRI, for example.

Almost all Rust code in QEMU will involve QOM objects, and pointers to these objects are shared, for example because they are part of the QOM composition tree. This creates exactly the above scenario:

1. a QOM object is created

2. a `*mut` is created, for example as the opaque value for a `MemoryRegion`

3. the QOM object is placed in the composition tree

4. a memory access dereferences the opaque value to a `&mut`

5. but the shared reference is still present in the composition tree

Because of this, QOM objects should almost always use `&self` instead of `&mut self`; access to internal fields must use interior mutability to go from a shared reference to a `&mut`.

Whenever C code provides you with an opaque `void *`, avoid converting it to a Rust mutable reference, and use a shared reference instead. The `qemu_api::cell` module provides wrappers that can be used to tell the Rust compiler about interior mutability, and optionally to enforce locking rules for the “Big QEMU Lock”. In the future, similar cell types might also be provided for `AioContext`-based locking as well.

In particular, device code will usually rely on the `BqlRefCell` and `BqlCell` type to ensure that data is accessed correctly under the “Big QEMU Lock”. These cell types are also known to the `vmstate` crate, which is able to “look inside” them when building an in-memory representation of a `struct`’s layout. Note that the same is not true of a `RefCell` or `Mutex`.

Bindings code instead will usually use the `Opaque` type, which hides the contents of the underlying struct and can be easily converted to a raw pointer, for use in calls to C functions. It can be used for example as follows:

    #[repr(transparent)]
    #[derive(Debug, qemu_api_macros::Wrapper)]
    pub struct Object(Opaque<bindings::Object>);

where the special `derive` macro provides useful methods such as `from_raw`, `as_ptr`, ``as_mut_ptr` and `raw_get`. The bindings will then manually check for the big QEMU lock with assertions, which allows the wrapper to be declared thread-safe:

    unsafe impl Send for Object {}
    unsafe impl Sync for Object {}

### Writing bindings to C code

Here are some things to keep in mind when working on the `qemu_api` crate.

Look at existing code

  Very often, similar idioms in C code correspond to similar tricks in Rust bindings. If the C code uses `offsetof`, look at qdev properties or `vmstate`. If the C code has a complex const struct, look at `MemoryRegion`. Reuse existing patterns for handling lifetimes; for example use `&T` for QOM objects that do not need a reference count (including those that can be embedded in other objects) and `Owned<T>` for those that need it.

Use the type system

  Bindings often will need access information that is specific to a type (either a builtin one or a user-defined one) in order to pass it to C functions. Put them in a trait and access it through generic parameters. The `vmstate` module has examples of how to retrieve type information for the fields of a Rust `struct`.

Prefer unsafe traits to unsafe functions

  Unsafe traits are much easier to prove correct than unsafe functions. They are an excellent place to store metadata that can later be accessed by generic functions. C code usually places metadata in global variables; in Rust, they can be stored in traits and then turned into `static` variables. Often, unsafe traits can be generated by procedural macros.

Document limitations due to old Rust versions

  If you need to settle for an inferior solution because of the currently supported set of Rust versions, document it in the source and in this file. This ensures that it can be fixed when the minimum supported version is bumped.

Keep locking in mind.

  When marking a type `Sync`, be careful of whether it needs the big QEMU lock. Use `BqlCell` and `BqlRefCell` for interior data, or assert `bql_locked()`.

Don’t be afraid of complexity, but document and isolate it

  It’s okay to be tricky; device code is written more often than bindings code and it’s important that it is idiomatic. However, you should strive to isolate any tricks in a place (for example a `struct`, a trait or a macro) where it can be documented and tested. If needed, include toy versions of the code in the documentation.

### Writing procedural macros

By conventions, procedural macros are split in two functions, one returning `Result<proc_macro2::TokenStream, MacroError>` with the body of the procedural macro, and the second returning `proc_macro::TokenStream` which is the actual procedural macro. The former’s name is the same as the latter with the `_or_error` suffix. The code for the latter is more or less fixed; it follows the following template, which is fixed apart from the type after `as` in the invocation of `parse_macro_input!`:

    #[proc_macro_derive(Object)]
    pub fn derive_object(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream {
        let input = parse_macro_input!(input as DeriveInput);
        let expanded = derive_object_or_error(input).unwrap_or_else(Into::into);

        TokenStream::from(expanded)
    }

The `qemu_api_macros` crate has utility functions to examine a `DeriveInput` and perform common checks (e.g. looking for a struct with named fields). These functions return `Result<..., MacroError>` and can be used easily in the procedural macro function:

    fn derive_object_or_error(input: DeriveInput) ->
        Result<proc_macro2::TokenStream, MacroError>
    {
        is_c_repr(&input, "#[derive(Object)]")?;

        let name = &input.ident;
        let parent = &get_fields(&input, "#[derive(Object)]")?[0].ident;
        ...
    }

Use procedural macros with care. They are mostly useful for two purposes:

- Performing consistency checks; for example `#[derive(Object)]` checks that the structure has `#[repr[C])` and that the type of the first field is consistent with the `ObjectType` declaration.

- Extracting information from Rust source code into traits, typically based on types and attributes. For example, `#[derive(TryInto)]` builds an implementation of `TryFrom`, and it uses the `#[repr(...)]` attribute as the `TryFrom` source and error types.

Procedural macros can be hard to debug and test; if the code generation exceeds a few lines of code, it may be worthwhile to delegate work to “regular” declarative (`macro_rules!`) macros and write unit tests for those instead.

### Coding style

Code should pass clippy and be formatted with rustfmt.

Right now, only the nightly version of `rustfmt` is supported. This might change in the future. While CI checks for correct formatting via `cargo fmt --check`, maintainers can fix this for you when applying patches.

It is expected that `qemu_api` provides full `rustdoc` documentation for bindings that are in their final shape or close.

## Adding dependencies

Generally, the set of dependent crates is kept small. Think twice before adding a new external crate, especially if it comes with a large set of dependencies itself. Sometimes QEMU only needs a small subset of the functionality; see for example QEMU’s `assertions` or `c_str` modules.

On top of this recommendation, adding external crates to QEMU is a slightly complicated process, mostly due to the need to teach Meson how to build them. While Meson has initial support for parsing `Cargo.lock` files, it is still highly experimental and is therefore not used.

Therefore, external crates must be added as subprojects for Meson to learn how to build them, as well as to the relevant `Cargo.toml` files. The versions specified in `rust/Cargo.lock` must be the same as the subprojects; note that the `rust/` directory forms a Cargo workspace, and therefore there is a single lock file for the whole build.

Choose a version of the crate that works with QEMU’s minimum supported Rust version (1.63.0).

Second, a new `wrap` file must be added to teach Meson how to download the crate. The wrap file must be named `NAME-SEMVER-rs.wrap`, where `NAME` is the name of the crate and `SEMVER` is the version up to and including the first non-zero number. For example, a crate with version `0.2.3` will use `0.2` for its `SEMVER`, while a crate with version `1.0.84` will use `1`.

Third, the Meson rules to build the crate must be added at `subprojects/NAME-SEMVER-rs/meson.build`. Generally this includes:

- `subproject` and `dependency` lines for all dependent crates

- a `static_library` or `rust.proc_macro` line to perform the actual build

- `declare_dependency` and a `meson.override_dependency` lines to expose the result to QEMU and to other subprojects

Remember to add `native: true` to `dependency`, `static_library` and `meson.override_dependency` for dependencies of procedural macros. If a crate is needed in both procedural macros and QEMU binaries, everything apart from `subproject` must be duplicated to build both native and non-native versions of the crate.

It’s important to specify the right compiler options. These include:

- the language edition (which can be found in the `Cargo.toml` file)

- the `--cfg` (which have to be “reverse engineered” from the `build.rs` file of the crate).

- usually, a `--cap-lints allow` argument to hide warnings from rustc or clippy.

After every change to the `meson.build` file you have to update the patched version with `meson subprojects update --reset ``NAME-SEMVER-rs`. This might be automated in the future.

Also, after every change to the `meson.build` file it is strongly suggested to do a dummy change to the `.wrap` file (for example adding a comment like `# version 2`), which will help Meson notice that the subproject is out of date.

As a last step, add the new subproject to `scripts/archive-source.sh`, `scripts/make-release` and `subprojects/.gitignore`.